Discussion Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 34

Discussion - Coursework Example One of the best treatments for VTE prophylaxis in stroke patients is the Trans esophageal echo-Doppler system (TEDS). Research by (Maltagliati, Galli, Tamborini, Calligaris, Doria, Salehi, Pepi, 2006) shows that this treatment is useful in coagulation that will aid in the healing of the patients. The patients can, therefore, be treated with the help of the Advanced Practice Nurses. scds, and Heparin or Lovenox are also quit useful in the treatment of VTE prophylaxis in stroke patients when the nurse properly administers the drugs. When nurses and physicians in an organization get used to doing things in a certain way, then this forms a particular organizational culture. This culture may interfere with the implementation of new things into the organization. One of the things that may be hindered by organizational culture is the implementation of evidence-based practice (EBP) (Aarons, Sawitzky, 2006). This research means that it may be difficult to implement some changes the TEDS treatment. However, with proper management and instructions the evidence-based research can be used to help patients in the organization. Maltagliati, A., Galli, C. A., Tamborini, G., Calligaris, A., Doria, E., Salehi, R., & Pepi, M. (2006). Usefulness of transoesophageal echocardiography before cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation and different anticoagulant regimens. Heart, 92(7),

The performance of Tanzania in international trade

The performance of Tanzania in international trade There are six main theories that govern international trade namely; classical trade theory, factor proportion theory, product life cycle theory, foreign direct investment theories, international production theory and internationalization theory. 1.1 Classical trade theory Countries gain if each devotes resources to the production of goods and services Ricardo (1817) in which it has an advantage Smith (1776). 1.2 Factor proportion theory Countries will tend to specialize in the production of goods and services that Hecksher and Ohlin (1933) utilize their most abundant resources 1.3 Product life cycle theory The cycle follows that: a countrys export strength builds; foreign production Vernon (1971) starts; foreign production becomes competitive in export markets; and Wells (1968, 1969) import competition emerges in the countrys home market 1.4 Foreign direct investment theories Market imperfections theory firms decision to invest overseas is explained as a strategy to capitalize on Hymer (1970) certain capabilities not shared by competitors in foreign countries 1.5 International production theory The propensity of a firm to initiate foreign production will depend on the specific Dunning (1980) attractions of its home country compared with resource implications and Fayerweather (1982) advantages of locating in another country 1.6 Internalization theory Internalization concerns extending the direct operations of the firm and bringing Buckley (1982, 1988) under common ownership and control the activities conducted by intermediate Buckley and Casson markets that link the firm to customers. 2.0 THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE The importance of international trade to a nations economic welfare and development has been heavily documented in the economics literature since Adam Smiths (1776) inquiry into nature and causes of the wealth of nations. This suggests that economies need to export goods and services in order to generate revenue to finance imported goods and services which cannot be produced indigenously (Coutts and Godley, 1992). The main indicators of a nations economic strength can be gauged from its gross domestic product (GDP), as this measure is an estimate of the value of goods and services produced by an economy in a given period (Tayeb, 1992). The notion that international trade can influence GDP has been explored by several economic theorists (Marin, 1992; Meier, 1984) and culminated in the export-led growth thesis. As export sales increase, other things being equal, the GDP of a nation will rise and provide a stimulus to improved economic well-being and societal prosperity. The way in which this relationship can be interpreted suggests that export performance has a stimulating effect throughout a countrys economy in the form of technological spillovers and other related favourable externalities (Marin, 1992). Export activities may exert these influences because exposure to international markets demands improved efficiency, and supports product and process innovation activities, while increases in specialization encourage profitable exploitation of economies of scale (Temple, 1994). Thus, the export-led growth thesis predicts export growth will cause economy-wide productivity gains in the form of enhanced levels of GDP. Another mechanism through which exports are connected with sustainable rates of economic growth is the balance of payments. The balance of payments constraint can be expressed as follows. In general, economic growth creates a variety of demands which cannot be satisfied solely by domestic output. The faster the rate of domestic demand, the more accelerated the growth of imports (Abdel- Malek, 1969). However, any excess of imports from one country to another, over and above exports requires the trade deficit to be financed by either government borrowing from overseas or drawing on the economys stock of assets. If this situation is sustained, it becomes vital for the home government to address the issue of such a trade imbalance (de Jonquieres, 1994; Hornby, 1994). Classical trade theory dictates that the extent to which a country exports and imports has a direct relationship to the trading pattern of the country with other nations. That is, countries are able to gain if they devote a certain amount of their resources to the generation of goods and services in which they have an economic advantage (Ricardo, 1817). Therefore, classical trade theory argues that a country generates goods and services in which it has an advantage, for consumption indigenously, and subsequently exports the surplus. It is for countries to import goods and services in which they have an economic disadvantage. Economic advantages/ disadvantages may arise from country differences in factors such as resource endowments, labour, capital, technology or entrepreneurship. Classical trade theory contends that the basis for international trade can be sourced to differences in production characteristics and resource endowments which are founded on domestic differences in natural and acquired economic advantages. However, over and above such a general insight into international trade, classical trade theory is unable to offer any explanation as to what causes differences in relative advantages. The factor proportion theory, in contrast to classical trade theory, is able to provide an explanation for the differences in advantage exhibited by trading countries. According to this theory, countries will tend to generate and export goods and services that harness large amounts of abundant production factors that they possess, and import goods that require large amounts of production factors which are scarce (Heckscher and Ohlin, 1933). Both of these theories stated above have been shown to be deficient in explaining more recent patterns of international trade. For example, the 1960s witnessed significant technological progress and the rise of the multinational enterprise, which resulted in a call for new theories of international trade to reflect changing commercial realities (Leontief, 1966). At that time, the product life cycle theory of international trade was found to be a useful framework for explaining and predicting international trade patterns as well as multinational enterprise expansion. This theory suggested that a trade cycle emerges where a product is produced by a parent firm, then by its foreign subsidiaries and finally anywhere in the world where costs are at their lowest possible (Vernon, 1966). Furthermore, it explains how a product may emerge as a countrys export and work through the life cycle to ultimately become an import. The essence of the international product life cycle is that technological innovation and market expansion are critical issues in explaining patterns of international trade. That is, technology is a key factor in creating and developing new products. Market size and structure are influential in determining the extent and type of international trade. While these theories are insightful, a number of modern international trade theories have emerged recently which take account of other important considerations such as government involvement and regulation. However, these theories make assumptions which detract from their potential significance and contribution to international business. For instance, they assume that: factors of production are immobile between countries; perfect information for international trade opportunities exists; and, traditional importing and exporting are the only mechanisms for transferring goods and services across national boundaries (Bradley, 1991). The market imperfections theory states that firms constantly seek market opportunities and their decision to invest overseas is explained as a strategy to capitalize on certain capabilities not shared by competitors in foreign countries (Hymer, 1970). The capabilities or advantages of firms are explained by market imperfections for products and factors of production. That is, the theory of perfect competition dictates that firms produce homogeneous products and enjoy the same level of access to factors of production. However, the reality of imperfect competition, which is reflected in industrial organization theory (Porter, 1985), determines that firms gain different types of competitive advantages and each to varying degrees. Nonetheless, market imperfections theory does not explain why foreign production is considered the most desirable means of harnessing the firms advantage. Dunning (1980) and Fayerweather (1982) have addressed this issue and developed what can be described as international production theory. International production theory suggests that the propensity of a firm to initiate foreign production depend on the specific attractions of its home country compared with resource implications and advantages of locating in another country. This theory makes it explicit that not only do resource differentials and the advantages of the firm play a part in determining overseas investment activities, but foreign government actions may significantly influence the piecemeal attractiveness and entry conditions for firms. This was extensively investigated by Buckley (1982, 1988) and Buckley and Casson (1976, 1985). Internalization theory centers on the notion that firms aspire to develop their own internal markets whenever transactions can be made at lower cost within the firm. Thus, internalization involves a form of vertical integration bringing new operations and activities, formerly carried out by intermediate markets, under the ownership and governance of the firm. 3.0 PERFORMANCE OF TANZANIA IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE AFTER JOINING REGIONAL TRADE PROTOCOLS. 3.1 Factors hindering performance of Tanzania in International trade Tanzania has not benefited as much as would be possible from the generous concessions offered by regional trade protocols. There are several factors that can be attributed to Tanzanias poor performance in international trade one of them being domestic supply constraints. Another factor is poor capacity to negotiate in international trade meetings due to lack of awareness. The issue of awareness is significant because successful participation in international trade matters requires knowledge of global developments in trade issues. Awareness helps to improve effectiveness of trade policy for Tanzania. Also, high level of awareness provides a benchmark based on which the effectiveness of agreements and negotiations can be measured. It has been revealed that many officials who represent Tanzania in international trade negotiations are not aware of some important regional trade protocol issues and thus fail to take advantage of preferences and opportunities that can increase the performance of Tanzania in international trade. Lack of awareness on regional trade protocols leads to poor performance of Tanzania in international trade. The table below shows the extent of awareness on regional trade protocols. Level of awareness among stakeholders on regional trade protocols Type of regional trade protocol Percentage of awareness SADC 18.3% AGOA 14.3% WTO 2.0% COMESA 9.9% EAC 2.0% EU-ACP 7.9% Source: Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF, 2008). The data above shows that the level of awareness on regional trade protocols among stakeholders is highest at 18.3% for SADC and lowest for WTO and EAC at 2.0%. These findings show that the level of awareness on regional trade protocols among stakeholders in Tanzania is very low and this hinders the performance of Tanzania in international trade and FDI. In most cases, the preparations for negotiations are poorly made, including poor consultation and coordination. Negotiators go in the negotiation table with a pre-determined position, a tendency that limits their flexibility to maximize gains from such negotiations. Another problem relates to insufficient analytical work before attending the negotiations. Another reason for poor performance of Tanzania in international trade negotiations is that the coordination of international trade is not centralized. For instance, negotiations and agreements for EAC are handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation while those of SADC are handled by under the Ministry of Industry and Trade that is also responsible for all multilateral trade issues. Another reason for poor performance of Tanzania in international trade is that the private sector in Tanzania has limited participation in international trade negotiations. Also, the private sector in Tanzania is not involved in formulation of international trade policies , hence limiting their experience and level of awareness on international trade issues compared to other countries which involve their private sectors. For instance, Tanzania Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture (TCCIA), Chamber of Industry and Trade (CTI) and Tanzania Private Sector Foundation (TPSF) are not involved in international trade negotiations, thus limiting the performance of Tanzania in international trade. Due to poor preparation with regard to international trade, Tanzania fails to benefit from international trade agreements. The poor participation of the private sector in Tanzania in regional trade protocols is mainly caused by lack of financial and human resources. To deal with the issue of lack of financial resources among the private sector, the government sometimes includes delegates from the private sector in trade missions especially when the delegations involve high-level government officials. Recently, the government has started to involve the private sector in regional trade negotiations. For instance, the private sector was involved in the EAC negotiations from the very beginning. Also, although CTI was partially involved in the EAC policy formulation, their participation was limited due to lack of awareness and willingness on part of the government. 3.2 Performance of Tanzania in FDI after joining regional trade protocols Among the objectives of Tanzania in joining regional trade protocols is facilitating Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Along with expansion of market opportunities, regional trade protocols encourage FDI because investors are attracted to larger market and may thus anticipate enjoying larger economy of scale. Investors take advantage of wider market and expect their investments to expand. The East African Community for example has put in place a shared investment policy among member states with harmonized investment incentives for investors. The performance of Tanzania with regard to FDI has been much effective especially during the 1990S when the country underwent privatization after Structural Adjustment Programs. The table below shows the performance of FDI after regional trade protocols; FDI inflows to Tanzania from various regional trade protocols in US$ Millions 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 EAC 54.1 22.9 6.9 12.5 94.4 3.3 SADC 122.1 70.5 139.3 181 513 17.6 AGOA 325 151.4 31.6 52.1 560 19.3 EU-ACP 677 86.7 95.8 183 106 36.7 Source: Tanzania Investment Centre (TIC, 2008) The findings above show that Tanzania has attracted FDI mostly through EU-ACP countries followed by FDI from AGOA and SADC. Thus, it can be generalized that EE-ACP and AGOA have been the main source of FDI to Tanzania compared to other regional trade protocols that Tanzania has joined namely; EAC and SADC. This can be explained due to the fact that the African countries have low capital formation. 3.3 Performance of Tanzania under AGOA Regime The performance of Tanzania in AGOA is poor compared to the performance of other countries. For instance, during the first year of AGOA, Tanzania exported goods worth $ 899,000, mostly agricultural and forestry, handicrafts, horticulture and fish products. On the other hand, Kenya exported goods worth $57.1 million mostly textiles and apparel. The main reason for this poor performance is because Tanzania delayed to register for AGOA. On the issue of investments from USA which is also part of the AGOA trade protocol, Tanzania has failed to register meaningful investments from the United States due to several factors such as; corruption, poor infrastructures, high electricity cost and bureaucracy. Another reason is complicated laws regarding land ownership surrounding investment projects. The table below shows the performance of Tanzania under AGOA compared to other countries that participate in AGOA namely; Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Lesotho. The data shows that, besides Uganda, Tanzania has had the worst performance in AGOA. This shows that regional trade protocols have had little impact on participation of Tanzania in international trade. Trade under AGOA for selected countries 000 US$ (2000-2008) Country Total exports to US AGOA export Tanzania 16594 716 Uganda 7282 22 Kenya 120,421 74963 Nigeria 3636192 3366165 South Africa 2646359 831805 Lesotho 208756 206349 Total 8927183 5723216 Source: BOT (2008). 3.4 Market Access and Technical Assistance Tanzanias participation in the WTO issues is through the Least Developed Countries (LDC) group. The countries forming the LDCs group are eligible to receive the special treatment under the WTO rules so as to enhance market access. However, Tanzanias participation in WTO has had little impact on the volume of their trade due to low export volume. On the other hand, Tanzania has benefited from technical assistance through various initiatives such as; Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Program (JITAP), which involves UNCTAD, WTO and ITC. The objectives of such assistance were to improve the performance and capacity stakeholders to understand regional trade protocols. Special and differential treatment has been useful for poor countries such as Tanzania. 3.5 Performance of Tanzania in international trade after joining regional trade protocols. The tables below show the performance of Tanzania in international trade after four regional trade protocols namely EU-ACP, SADC, EAC and AGOA. The findings are shown in terms of exports made by Tanzania to other countries and imports made by Tanzania as shown below; Tanzania exports to different countries in US$ Millions 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 EU-ACP 226 241 214 362 432 474 SADC 22.3 15.1 13.8 18.4 21 51.3 EAC 22.4 32.8 28.7 40.7 43.6 40.8 USA 21.4 12.8 18 15.2 15.1 13.5 Source: Bank of Tanzania (BOT, 2008). The findings above show that exports from Tanzania to other countries have been mainly to EU-ACP countries followed by exports to EAC countries, SADC countries and to a little extent to the United States of America. This shows that regional trade protocols have had little impact on international trade in Tanzania because exports to EU countries have been there even before Tanzania joined regional trade protocols. Tanzania imports from different countries in US$ Millions 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 EU-ACP 367.1 514 413 344 389 391 SADC 139 179 196 194 221 211 EAC 87.8 108 101 98.9 107 97.8 USA 52.6 81.3 99.2 58.9 65 91 Source: Bank of Tanzania (BOT, 2008). The findings shown in the table above show that imports from Tanzania to other countries have been mostly to EU-ACP countries; followed by those from SADC countries, EAC countries and the United States. These findings again show that regional trade protocols have had little impact on international trade because imports from EU countries were there even before Tanzania joined regional trade protocols. 4.0 THE STATUS OF TANZANIAS IMPLEMENTATION OF REGIONAL TRADE PROTOCOLS Below is a description of the status for Tanzania in the following key issues regarding regional trade protocols. 4.1 Conformity to the WTO rules: Tanzania needs good and timely information about WTO decisions (and their interpretation) and a capacity to influence the new agenda of the WTO at an early stage. The WTO is member-driven and reacts only to member initiatives. 4.2 Import liberalization issues: This is a requirement that the country should comply with the WTO agreement on removal of trade barriers by cutting down tariffs and other non-tariff barriers. Tanzania has already complied with most of the Uruguay Round (UR) requirement on its imports licensing and tariff regimes. The remaining challenge is to transform such reforms into institutions by drafting legislation to support them. 4.3 Agriculture trade: Tanzania is in compliance with the negotiations and agreements on agriculture (subsidies and market access). However, the country needs to closely monitor the forthcoming negotiations on agriculture as the requirements could be tightened. 4.4 Treatment of Non-Tariff Barriers: Since Non Tariff Barriers (NTB) are varied by country own economic measures to control trade, an important issue is whether the NTBs contradict WTO rules. Another one is the extent through which NTB are source of trade disputes between countries. 4.5 Subsidies: As with NTBs, United Republic of Tanzania needs to re-examine all Government measures to see if they are in conflict with the new provisions on subsidies. 4.6 Anti-dumping rules, countervailing actions and safeguards: For formal compliance with the WTO, United Republic of Tanzania must see that the national and regional (EAC and SADC) rules and procedures on anti-dumping, countervailing, and safeguards are reformed to fit the WTO rules, and this appears to be underway. 4.7 Customs valuation and other custom rules: United Republic of Tanzania is fast thriving to complete its customs valuation reforms that should make it conformable to the WTO rule on customs valuation. According to the interview with the officials in the MIT, it is hoped that this exercise will be complete by July 2004. This also includes measures to remove the Pre-shipment inspection procedure to enhance efficiency in custom administration. 4.8 Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS): Under GATT 1947, investment law had not been central to its rules, and countries have been able to ignore the rules. Tanzania needs at least to be aware of the rules and its vulnerabilities if it does not adapt to them, given the wide variety of types of investment regime that are used by different countries. 4.9 Standards: International standards are becoming more common, and for countries, which have not yet set their own, adopting these at an early stage may be a particularly efficient step. An alternative for United Republic of Tanzania in a region like the EAC or SADC is to shift to regional standards. However; while this may be cost saving, it still leaves the future costs of adapting such standards when an international standard is eventually set. Notifications of regional standards have been made for the EAC. These need to be made by Tanzania because EAC is not yet a recognized region in the WTO. 4.10 Services: As there were effectively no minimum requirements for services offers in the Uruguay Round, Tanzania formally complied. But there will be much more pressure in the next round to make substantive offers. The WTO has made provision for technical assistance to be availed to the LDCs regarding services liberalization, but for Tanzania has not yet been a clear indication of the type of assistance to be requested. Yet, in future requirements for more offers for service trade liberalization, Tanzania, among other countries, may not have a benchmark upon which to make offers. Even where the WTO may offer one, it may not necessarily be suitable for Tanzania as least developed country. 4.11 Trade Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS): Tanzania must comply with the TRIPS rules within the 2003-2010 period. Tanzania has legal systems that are likely to be adaptable to the standard forms and so the costs of adoption to the TRIPS will not be substantial. 4.12 Government Procurement: There is no obligation to join agreement on Government Procurement, and a few developing countries have. Whether Tanzania should join depends on whether it wants to export to government purchasers who have joined the agreement, and whether it wants to give preference to any local suppliers who would be in competition with potential foreign suppliers. If a substantial proportion of a countrys government expenditure is financed by aid, there may be other constraints on its purchasing. 4.13 Labour and the Environment: There is no need for immediate action on labour or environmental issues to meet international standards (except for the existing environmental protocols and obligations under ILO Conventions). But there will be opportunities for Tanzania to use environmental arguments in trade negotiations, especially when such arguments are useful for some products. 5.0 MEASURES TAKEN TO IMPROVE INTERNATIONAL TRADE Several measures have been taken to improve the performance of Tanzania in international trade with regard to regional trade protocols. Such measures include seeking assistance from donors to facilitate international trade. Donors support regional integration programs and activities under COMESA and SADC and this has benefited members States including Tanzania. Among such donors include; United States Agency for International Development (USAID), GTZ, UNCTAD, UNDP and UNIDO. Also, the European Union is funding a number of projects aimed at improving international trade. Within EAC, projects aimed at improving international trade include; cooperation with UNCTAD, of ASYCUDA (automated system for customs data) and Euro trace. The European Union also supports international trade by offering EAC latest computer hardware, setting up internet networks and offering expert advice in preparing the region for Common External Tariff. EU also provides EAC staff with training regarding WTO matters for member. Support has also been offered to assist in developing the finance and Investment Protocol of EAC. On the other hand, USAID has also assisted SADC in the ratification and implementation process for the SADC trade Protocol. UNCTAD has provided technical assistance for the Trade Negotiation Forum process devoted to the preparation of the SADC trade liberalization program leading to the formation of the desired free trade area. Assistance has also been given to SADC by the Commonwealth Secretariat in such areas as development of a regional industrial policy. 6.0 CONCLUSION This study has analysed characteristics and status of Tanzanias participation in regional trade protocols and its impact on international trade. It also explains the rationale for Tanzania to join regional trade protocols, level of participation and performance in international trade. The study also highlighted issues affecting the performance of Tanzania in international trade. The study found that although Tanzania participates in many regional trade protocols, they have had little impact on Tanzanias participation in international trade. For example, majority of regional trade protocols in which Tanzania is involved had little participation of key actors because of poor participation of the private sector. Another factor is lack of proper trade policy. Other factors that affect the impact of regional trade protocols on the performance of Tanzania in international trade include; poor administration of trade negotiations and agreements, lack of a centralized mechanism to monitor, follow-up nor appraise the performance of Tanzania in regional trade protocols, and multiple handling of international trade issues by different departments/ministries which make it difficult. Another factor that hinder effective participation of Tanzania in regional trade protocols and hence, poor performance in international trade is lack of capacity and awareness of negotiation skills among representatives of Tanzania is regional trade protocols. Due to poor negotiation skills, Tanzania has failed to take advantage of opportunities that arise from international trade. Despite the fact that Tanzania is interested in regional trade protocols, pursuances of such interests are not linked to the objective of widening market access. Often, negotiators adopt a pre-emptive approach to negotiation making the whole strategy less flexible. In addition, the interests of Tanzania are actively negotiated but not actively realized on the ground during negotiations. From the findings above, this study concludes that participation and performance of Tanzania is regional trade protocols has been poor due to various hindrances especially due to poor export capacity and lack of market access due to quality issues Hence, most of the regional trade protocols in which Tanzania has participated have had little or little impact on international trade. 7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS From the findings of the study, the following are recommendations made;  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Tanzanian government should centralize issues related to regional trade protocols so as to enhance the positive impact of the trade protocols on international trade.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The government should promote public debate and discussion in the area of international trade protocols.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The government should intervene by offering training on negotiation skills so as to improve the performance of Tanzania in international trade.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The government in collaboration with stakeholders should take measures to increase production so as to increase the volume of exports and hence, more participation in international trade.  ·Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Regional trade protocols have high impact on attracting FDI, thus, the government should follow up on regional trade protocols for investment opportunities.

Knowles Separate Peace Essays: Loss of Innocence -- Separate Peace Es

Loss of Innocence in A Separate Peace    In the human nature, naive ignorance of the world's imperfections eventually yields to the recognition that the world does contain hatred and violence.   John Knowles places his novel A Separate Peace in situations which necessitate this emotional transformation.   The characters become increasingly aware of the nature of the world.   In addition, symbols help show the interrelation of ideas and events as they appear in Gene's subconscious mind.   In this novel, setting, character, and symbols develop the theme of loss of innocence.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Setting expatiates the theme of loss of innocence.   For example, the four major characters in this story are sixteen and seventeen years old, which is the age when teenagers prepare to end their childhood and become adults.   Also, the Devon school, where the story takes place, is a place where boys make the transition to full adulthood, and so this setting shows more clearly the boys' own growth.   Finally, World War II, which in 1942 is raging in Europe, forces these teenage boys to grow up fast; during their seventeenth year they must evaluate everything that the war means to them and decide whether to take an active ... ...nature.   Finally, the tree off which Finny and Gene jump represents the Tree of Knowledge; jumping from the tree is against the rules, and in doing so the boys symbolically accept the loss of their innocence as Adam and Eve did by eating of the forbidden fruit.   Symbols certainly convey the theme of loss of innocence.      Ã‚  Ã‚   In John Knowles' novel A Separate Peace, the theme of loss of innocence is skillfully developed through setting, character, and symbols.   This story simply details a young man's entering the adult world as all children do.   Everyone suffers loss of innocence.   

Garrity Warnings: To Give or Not to Give, That Is the Question Essay

         Garrity warnings are applicable during internal investigations which are being carried against law enforcement officers to ascertain allegations which have been laid against the officers. Under the Garrity Warning principle, the statements or testimonials by officers which are made during the investigations cannot be used against the officers in case there are criminal trials that have been instigated against the officer. There have been different cases where the principle of Garrity has been applied to determine whether officers are guilty of crimes or not guilty. One of the cases where the Garrity principle was applied is the case of McKinley v. City of Mansfield, 404 F.3d 418 (2005). In this case, there are various facts, and decisions which were made as follows: Facts            McKinley was a police officer when the police department conducted an internal investigation on its administration for all the officers (Eric, December 2012). All officers were put through an interview whereby they were all under the Garrity principle that said that their statement would not be used for the purpose of prosecution (Eric, December 2012). McKinley lied during the first interview. This prompted the investigator to conduct a second interview with McKinley, but after informing him of the allegations against him and also about the Garrity warning principle. McKinley admitted to have lied in the first interview and this brought about the case against him of lying (Eric, December 2012).               McKinley was informed by the investigating officer that he was being interviewed for the second time following allegations that he had provided untruthful answers during the first interview that was conducted (Eric, December 2012). Upon the completion of the second interview, the investigating officer turned in the statements made by McKinley as well as the findings that had been made during the two interviews to the prosecution for the purpose of prosecuting McKinley. Based on the findings of the investigation, McKinley was terminated but later reinstated to his former position with a back pay as well as benefits based on the collective bargain that was reached under arbitration (Eric, December 2012). Finally, McKinley was charged in court with falsification of information as well as obstruction of the official operations and business of the police department. Decision             When McKinley was charged in court, and made a motion to suppress the statements that he had made from being bused against him in the court of law. The judges declined the request and allowed the use of these statements. Based on the investigation findings and the statements which had been made by McKinley, he was convicted of the crimes brought against him (Eric, December 2012). The appellate court vacated the convictions against McKinley based on the view that the department knew that the statements by McKinley were based on the principle of Garrity hence inadmissible. The resulting action was that McKinley decided to instigate charges against the City of Mansfield as well as the investigating officers and certain police officials within the department (Eric, December 2012). The trial court granted a summary judgment to the defendants but the appellate court reversed part of the decision by the trial court. However, it was held that McKinley was still liable to charges against him based on the findings of the first interview.             From the case of McKinley, it is my belief that best practices were necessary in deciding this case so that there is fairness in the application of the law (Eric, December 2012). It was appropriate that the best practices were exercised in this case since there is need to uphold the law and ensure that the right of every officer is protected as well as that of the department of police. Alternative             From the above case of McKinley, it there is no alternative that would have been applicable in this case. The prosecution did not have the right to use the statements that the officer had made under the Garrity principle (Eric, December 2012). Furthermore, the investigating officer was wrong in using the second statement as part of the evidence against McKinley for the purpose of prosecuting him yet the statements were made under the Garrity warnings. The officer was right in taking action against the investigating officer as well as some of the officials in the department hence there are no alternative actions that he was supposed to take after what had transpired (Eric, December 2012). The department also did a right thing in taking him to court, but only based on the first statement from the first interview that he had to lies. Solution               The solution to the case between McKinley and the police department can be reached through an arbitration process whereby the parties can reach a common agreement. Arbitration will help retain the reputation of the department while ensuring that all the parties involved in the matter are satisfied. Conclusion            The Garrity warnings principle is an important aspect in the operations of the police department as it helps in protecting the officers. Furthermore, this principle should not be misused by the officers as a way to continue doing things which are against the law. The police department should also be very keen in the way it deals with officers under the Garrity principle. Reference Eric P. Daigle, â€Å"Garrity Warnings: To Give or Not to Give, That Is the Question,† Chief’s Counsel, The Police Chief 79 (December 2012): 12–13. Source document

My Personal Interest Project Essay

The Internet is a growing space with infinite potential, yet we must question the truth and reliability of some things. Sherry Turckle, author of Together Alone quoted a subject of hers as saying â€Å"When things happen in real-time that’s it you have to show emotion and have quick responses, there is not more time left to think† My personal interest project (Henceforth referred to as PIP) is an investigation into the desire to create an online pseudo and the impact it is having on people’s social skills across a range of social situations. My first idea was to study the affect of vaccinations in society but that changed when my interest in social identity grew. The initial idea began when during conversation the topic of ‘fake’ people on the Internet was brought up and the conversation wound its way into the desire to change your identity and how that can effect the first time you meet someone face-to-face and they realise you are not the sock puppet you resonated to be via the internet. After thought on that idea, I became interested in what drove an increasing amount of people to alter themselves on the Internet and the comparison between reactions in people in a situation online and the same situation in ‘real-time’. The way peoples minds work, and the reasoning behind decision making has always intrigued me and I now have a chance to explore it in depth. This research idea resonates with the topic Change and Continuity within the Society and Culture syllabus. It explores the changing uses of technology on social and cultural practices and traditions. The primary methodologies I am using include; Interviews with professors studying similar concepts consisting mainly of open-ended questions, Focus groups to collect primary information on the comparison of effects in regard to different social situations, Questionaries to enable me to collect a range of answers for general questions and personal reflection which allows me to include my own experiences from my micro world and aid in the answering of the hypothesis, It will also allow me to see the way I have reacted in the same social situations or would potentially react. I will be constructing a questionnaire to get a general idea on the topic; I will also be constructing a group of 30, all of specific age groups, and having them record their experiences in 10 different day-to-day social situations and recording how they reacted to the situations via social media and in real-time. I aim to discover a deeper insight into the desire to change who you are over the Internet and the impact the Internet is having on peoples ability to function in day-to-day social situations. I have experienced the changing of peoples behaviours in situations were the Internet is not readily available and wish to explore the reasoning behind why people feel the need to create an online pseudo yet are slowly losing their real-time social identity and skills.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Voting Rights Act of 1965 The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a key component of the civil rights movement that seeks to enforce the Constitutions guarantee of every Americans right to vote under the 15th Amendment. The Voting Rights Act was designed to end discrimination against black Americans, particularly those in the South after the Civil War. Text of the Voting Rights Act An important provision of the Voting Rights Act reads: No voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure shall be imposed or applied by any State or political subdivision to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color. The provision reflected the 15th Amendment of the Constitution, which reads: The right of U.S. citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. History of the Voting Rights Act President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965. The law made it illegal for Congress and state governments to pass voting laws based on race and has been described as the most effective civil rights law ever enacted. Among other provisions, the act prohibited discrimination through the use of poll taxes and the application of literacy tests to determine whether voters could take part in elections. It is widely regarded as enabling the enfranchisement of millions of minority voters and diversifying the electorate and legislative bodies at all levels of American government, according to The Leadership Conference, which advocates for civil rights. Legal Battles The U.S. Supreme Court has issued several major rulings on the Voting Rights Act. The first was in 1966. The court initially upheld the constitutionality of the law. Congress had found that case-by-case litigation was inadequate to combat wide-spread and persistent discrimination in voting, because of the inordinate amount of time and energy required to overcome the obstructionist tactics invariably encountered in these lawsuits. After enduring nearly a century of systematic resistance to the Fifteenth Amendment, Congress might well decide to shift the advantage of time and inertia from the perpetrators of the evil to its victims. In 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court threw out a provision of the Voting Rights Act that required nine states to get federal approval from the Department of Justice or a federal court in Washington, D.C., before making any changes to their election laws. That preclearance provision was originally set to expire in 1970 but was extended numerous times by Congress. The decision was 5-4. Voting to invalidate that provision in the act were Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and Justices Antonin Scalia, Anthony M. Kennedy, Clarence Thomas and Samuel A. Alito Jr. Voting in favor of keeping the law intact were Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Stephen G. Breyer, Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan. Roberts, writing for the majority, said that portion of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was outdated and that the conditions that originally justified these measures no longer characterizes voting in the covered jurisdictions. Our country has changed. While any racial discrimination in voting is too much, Congress must ensure that the legislation it passes to remedy that problem speaks to current conditions. In the 2013 decision, Roberts cited data that showed turnout among black voters had grown to exceed that of white voters in most of the states originally covered by the Voting Rights Act. His comments suggest that discrimination against blacks had diminished greatly since the 1950s and 1960s. States Impacted The provision struck down by the 2013 ruling covered nine states, most of them in the South. Those states are: AlabamaAlaskaArizonaGeorgiaLouisianaMississippiSouth CarolinaTexasVirginia End of the Voting Rights Act The Supreme Courts 2013 ruling was decried by critics who said it gutted the law. President Barack Obama was sharply critical of the decision. I am deeply disappointed with the Supreme Court’s decision today. For nearly 50 years, the Voting Rights Act – enacted and repeatedly renewed by wide bipartisan majorities in Congress – has helped secure the right to vote for millions of Americans. Today’s decision invalidating one of its core provisions upsets decades of well-established practices that help make sure voting is fair, especially in places where voting discrimination has been historically prevalent. The ruling was praised, however, in states that had been overseen by the federal government. In South Caroline, Attorney General Alan Wilson described the law as an extraordinary intrusion into state sovereignty in certain states. This is a victory for all voters as all states can now act equally without some having to ask for permission or being required to jump through the extraordinary hoops demanded by federal bureaucracy. Congress was expected to take up revisions of the invalidated section of the law in the summer of 2013.

Overview of Infinitives in Spanish

Overview of Infinitives in Spanish As the most basic of verb forms, the Spanish infinitive is widely used, even more so than its English counterpart. Since it has some characteristics of both verbs and nouns, its usage can be quite flexible. Following are the most common uses of the infinitive, along with sample sentences and links to lessons. As the Subject of a Sentence When it functions as the subject of a sentence, the infinitive functions much as it does when used as the subject in an English sentence, although it is often translated using the English gerund. Thus the sentence Nadar es difà ­cil could be translated as either To swim is difficult (English infinitive) or Swimming is difficult (English gerund). Infinitives used as nouns are masculine. Usually, when the subject infinitive is used to refer to general situations, no definite article (in this case el) is needed (although some speakers optionally include it). But when referring to specific instances, the article is often used. Thus, el isnt used in the above sample sentence, but it is here: El nadar a travà ©s del rà ­o era un movimiento fatal. (Swimming across the river was a fatal move.) (El) fumar es una de las peores cosas que los nià ±os pueden hacer con sus cuerpos. Smoking is one of the worst things that children can do with their bodies.(El) votar es una obligacià ³n y un derecho. Voting is an obligation and a right. ¿De dà ³nde procede este comprender? Where does this understanding come from? As the Object of a Preposition The use of infinitives after prepositions is another example of them functioning as nouns. Although the rule isnt consistently applied, the use of the definite article is usually optional. Spanish infinitives coming after prepositions are almost always translated using the English gerund. El error est en pensar que el inglà ©s tiene las mismas estructuras que el espaà ±ol. The mistake is in thinking that English has the same structures as Spanish.El hombre fue expulsado de restaurante por comer demasiado. The man was kicked out of the restaurant for eating too much.Nacimos para estar juntos. We were born to be together. In Forming the Periphrastic Future   An infinitive can follow a present-tense form of ir a to form a very common type of future tense. Voy a cambiar el mundo. Im going to change the world. As a Substitute for the Subjunctive Mood   The most common sentence structure calling for use of the subjunctive mood is one in the form of subject main verb que subject subjunctive verb. However, if the two subjects in the sentence are the same, it is normal to drop the que and replace the second verb with an infinitive. This can be seen in a simple example: In Pablo quiere que Marà ­a salga (Pablo wants Mary to leave), the two subjects are different and the subjunctive is used. But if the subjects are the same, the infinitive is used: Pablo quiere salir. (Pablo wants to leave.) Note that the English infinitive is used in both translations; youd make a mistake to imitate English in that regard. Esperamos obtener mejores resultados. We hope to get better results. (With different subjects, the subjunctive would have been used: Esperan que obtengamos mejores resultados. They hope we get better results.)Yo preferirà ­a hablar con la pared. I would prefer to talk with the wall.Javier niega querer salir del Barcelona. Javier denies wanting to leave Barcelona. The infinitive may also substitute for the subjunctive following impersonal statements: No es necesario comprar un computador caro para realizar tareas sencillas. It isnt necessary to buy an expensive computer in order to accomplish simple tasks.No es probable ganar la loterà ­a. It isnt likely to win the lottery. Although generally the subjunctive is used following que when the main subject and the subordinate subject are different, an exception can occur with various verbs of influence such as dejar (to let), mandar (to mandate) and prohibir (to prohibit). In such sentences, the person performing the action is represented by an indirect-object pronoun. Desertà © porque me ordenaron matar a civiles. I deserted because they ordered me to kill civilians.Dà ©janos vivir en paz. Let us live in peace.Mis padres me prohibieron tener novio. My parents prohibited me from having a boyfriend.Le hicieron andar con los ojos vendados. They made him walk blindfolded. One way of analyzing the above sentences is to view the infinitive as the object of the main verb and the indirect object as representing the person affected by the main verbs action. To Follow Certain Verbs   Numerous verbs, too many to list here, are routinely followed by an infinitive. Structurally, the infinitive functions as an object of the verb, even though we may not think of it that way. Among these verbs are poder, which is usually thought of as an auxiliary verb. No puedo creer que su nombre no est en este reporte. I cant believe his name isnt in this report.Los cientà ­ficos lograron crear cà ©lulas del cerebro humano. The scientists succeeded in creating human brain cells.Los dos fingieron estar enfermos para ingresar al rea de emergencia del hospital. The two pretended to be sick in order to enter the hospital emergency room.Debemos cuidar el planeta Tierra. We ought to care for the planet Earth.Mi amiga no sabe estar sola. My friend doesnt know how to be alone. The verb phrases tener que and haber que are also followed by the infinitive. With Verbs of Perception In a sentence construction thats difficult to analyze, the infinitive can be used to indicate that someone was a witness (such as by hearing or seeing) to a completed action. Vimos volar un florero por la ventana. We saw a vase fly through the window.Nunca te vi estudiar. I never saw you study.Te oyeron cantar el himno. They heard you sing the hymn.

Timeline of Rockets - Leaving Earth Behind

Timeline of Rockets - Leaving Earth Behind 3000 BCE Babylonian astrologer-astronomers begin making methodical observations of the skies. 2000 BCE Babylonians develop a zodiac. 1300 BCE Chinese use of firework rockets becomes widespread. 1000 BCE Babylonians record sun/moon/planetary movements - Egyptians use sun clock. 600-400 BCE Pythagoras of Samos sets up a school. Parmenides of Elea, a student, proposes a spherical Earth made from condensed air and divided into five zones. He also sets forth ideas for stars being made of compressed fire and a finite, motionless, and spherical universe with illusory motion. 585 BCE Thales of Miletus, a Greek astronomer of the Ionian school, predicts the angular diameter of the sun. He also effectively predicts a solar eclipse, frightening Media and Lydia into negotiating for peace with the Greeks. 388-315 BCE Heraclides of Pontus explains the daily rotation of the stars by assuming that the Earth spins on its axis. He also discovers that Mercury and Venus revolve around the Sun instead of the Earth. 360 BCE Flying Pigeon (device that uses thrust) of Archytas made. 310-230 BCE Aristarchus of Samos proposes that the Earth revolves around the Sun. 276-196 BCE Eratosthenes, a Greek astronomer, measures the circumference of the Earth. He also finds the differences between planets and stars and prepares a star catalog. 250 BCE Herons aeolipile, which used steam power, was made. 150 BCE Hipparchus of Nicaea tries to measure the size of the sun and the moon. He also works on a theory to explain planetary motion and composes a star catalog with 850 entries. 46-120 AD - Plutarch sets forth in his De facie in orbe lunae (On the Face of the Moons Disk) 70 AD, that the moon is a small Earth inhabited by intelligent beings. He also puts forth theories that lunar markings are due to defects in our eyes, reflections from the Earth, or deep ravines filled with water or dark air. 127-141 AD Ptolomy publishes Almagest (aka Megiste Syntaxis-Great Collection), which states that the Earth is a central globe, with the universe revolving around it. 150 AD Lucian of Samosatas True History is published, the first science fiction story about Moon voyages. He also later does Icaromenippus, another moon-voyage story. 800 AD Baghdad becomes the astronomical study center of the world. 1010 AD The Persian poet Firdaus publishes a 60,000-verse epic poem, Sh_h-N_ma, about cosmic travel. 1232 AD Rockets ( arrows of flying fire) used at the siege of Kai-fung-fu. 1271 AD Robert Anglicus attempts to document surface and weather conditions on planets. 1380 AD T. Przypkowski studies rocketry. 1395-1405 AD Konrad Kyeser von Eichstdt produces Bellifortis, describing many military rockets. 1405 AD - Von Eichstdt writes about sky-rockets. 1420 AD - Fontana designs various rockets. 1543 AD - Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs), reviving Aristarchus heliocentric theory. 1546-1601 AD - Tycho Brahe measures positions of stars and planets. Supports heliocentric theory. 1564-1642 AD - Galileo Galilei first uses the telescope to observe the skies. Discovers sunspots, four major satellites on Jupiter (1610), and Venus phases. Defends Copernican theory in Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo (Dialogue of the Two Chief Systems of the World), 1632. 1571-1630 AD - Johannes Kepler derives the three great laws of planetary motion: planetary orbits are ellipses with the sun as one focus of the directly related to its distance from the Sun. Findings were published in Astronomia nova (New Astronomy), 1609, and De harmonice mundi (On the Harmony of the World), 1619. 1591 AD - Von Schmidlap writes a book about non-military rockets. Proposes rockets stabilized by sticks and rockets mounted on rockets for extra power. 1608 AD - Telescopes invented. 1628 AD - Mao Yuan-I makes the Wu Pei Chih, describing gunpowder and rocket manufacture and use. 1634 AD - Posthumous publication of Keplers Somnium (Dream), a science fiction entry defending heliocentrism. 1638 AD - Posthumous publication of Francis Goodwins The Man in the Moon: or a Discourse of Voyage Thither. It puts forth the theory that the attraction from the Earth is greater than that from the moon Publication of John Wilkins Discovery of a New World a discourse about life on other planets. 1642-1727 AD - Isaac Newton  synthesizes recent astronomical discoveries through universal gravitation in his famed, Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), 1687. 1649, 1652 AD - Cyranos reference to fire-crackers in his novels, Voyage dans la Lune (Voyage to the Moon) and Histoire des États etc Empires du Soleil (History of the States and Empires of the Sun). Both refer to the newest scientific theories. 1668 AD - Rocket experiments near Berlin by the German colonel, Christoph von Geissler. 1672 AD - Cassini, an Italian astronomer, predicts the distance between Earth and Sun to be 86,000,000 miles. 1686 AD - Bernard de Fontenelles popular astronomy book, Entretiens sur la Pluralità © des Mondes (Discourses on the Plurality of Worlds) published. Contained speculations about the habitability of the planets. 1690 AD - Gabriel Daniels Voiage du Monde de Descartes (Voyage to the World of Descartes) discusses the souls separation from the body in order to go to the Globe of the Moon. 1698 AD - Christian Huygens, renowned scientist, writes Cosmotheoros, or Conjectures Concerning the Planetary Worlds, a non-fictional premise on life on other planets. 1703 AD - David Russens Iter Lunare: or Voyage to the Moon uses the idea of catapulting to the moon. 1705 AD - Daniel Defoes The Consolidator tells of an ancient races mastery of Lunar flight and describes various spaceships and legends of lunar flights. 1752 AD - Voltaires Micromà ©gas describes a race of people on the star Sirius. 1758 AD - Emanuel Swedenborg writes Earths in our Solar System, which takes Christian Huygens non-fictional approach to discussing life on other planets. 1775 AD - Louis Folie writes Le Philosophe Sans Prà ©tention, about a Mercurian who observes Earthlings. 1781 AD - March 13:  William Herschel  makes his own  telescope  and discovers Uranus. He also puts forth theories of a habitable sun and life on other planetary bodies. Hyder Ali of India uses rockets against the British (were composed of heavy metal tubes guided by bamboo and had a range of a mile). 1783 AD - First  manned balloon  flight made. 1792-1799 AD - Further use of military rockets against the British in India. 1799-1825 AD - Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace, produces a five-volume work to describe the Newtonian system of the world, entitled Celestial Mechanics. 1800 - British Admiral  Sir William Congreve  began working with rockets for military purposes in England. He had originally adapted the idea from Indian rockets. 1801 AD - Rocket experiments carried out by the scientist,  Congreve. Astronomers discover that the large gap between Mars and Jupiter contains a large asteroid belt. The largest, Ceres, was found to have a diameter of 480 miles. 1806 - Claude Ruggiere launched small animals in rockets equipped with parachutes, in France. 1806 AD - First major rocket bombardment done (on Boulogne, using Congreve rockets). 1807 AD - William Congreve  used his rockets in the  Napoleonic Wars, as the British attacked Copenhagen and Denmark. 1812 AD - British rocket fire on Blasdenburg. Results in the taking of Washington D.C. and the White House. 1813 AD - British Rocket Corps formed. Begin by taking action in Leipzig. 1814 AD - August 9: British rocket fire on Fort McHenry prompts Francis Scott Key to write the rockets red glare line in his famous poem. During the War of Independence, the British used the  Congreve rockets  to attack  Fort McHenry  in Baltimore. 1817 - In St. Petersburg, Russian Zasyadko rockets were fired. 1825 AD - Dutch forces bomb the Celebes tribe in the East Indies  William Hale  develops the stickless rocket. 1826 AD - Congreve performs further rocket experiments using stage rockets (rockets mounted on rockets) as set out by Von Schmidlap. 1827 AD - George Tucker, under the pseudonym Joseph Atterlay, represents a new wave in science fiction, through describing a spaceship in A Voyage to the Moon with some Account of the Manners and Customs, Science and Philosophy of the People of Morosofia and other Lunarians. 1828 - Russian Zasyadko rockets were put to use in the Russo Turkish War. 1835 AD - Edgar Allen Poe describes a lunar voyage in a balloon in Lunar Discoveries, Extraordinary Aerial Voyage by Baron Hans Pfaall. August 25: Richard Adams Locke publishes his Moon Hoax. He publishes a week-long serial in the New York Sun, as if written by Sir John Herschel, discoverer of Uranus, about moon creatures. This was under the title, Great Astronomical Discoveries Lately Made By Sir John Herschel. 1837 AD - Wilhelm Beer and Johann von Mdler publish a map of the moon using the telescope at Beers observatory. 1841 - C. Golightly was granted the first  patent  in England for a rocket-airplane. 1846 AD - Urbain Leverrier discovers Neptune. 1865 Jules Verne published his novel, entitled From the Earth to the Moon. 1883 Tsiolkovskys Free Space was published by Tsiolkovsky who describes a rocket that functioned in a vacuum under Newtons Action-Reaction laws of motion. 1895 Tsiolkovsky published a book on space exploration which was entitled Dreams of the Earth and the Sky. 1901 H.G. Wells published his book, The First Man in the Moon, in which a substance with anti-gravity properties launched men to the moon. 1903 Tsiolkovsky produced a work entitled Exploring Space with Devices. Within, he discussed the applications of liquid propellants. 1909 Robert Goddard, in his study of fuels, determined that liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen would serve as an efficient source of propulsion, when properly combusted. 1911 Russian Gorochof published plans for a reaction airplane which operated on crude oil and compressed air for fuel. 1914 Robert Goddard  was granted two U.S. patents for rockets using solid fuel, liquid fuel, multiple propellant charges, and multi-stage designs. 1918 November 6-7, Goddard fired several rocket devices for representatives of the U.S. Signal Corps, Air Corps, Army ordinance and other assorted guests, at the Aberdeen proving grounds. 1919 Robert Goddard  wrote, and then submitted A Method of Attaining Extreme Altitudes, to the Smithsonian Institution for publication. 1923 Herman Oberth published The Rocket into Interplanetary Space in Germany creating discussion on the technology of rocket propulsion. 1924 Tsiolkovsky conceived the idea of multi-stage rockets, and discussed them for the first time in Cosmic Rocket Trains. A Central Committee for the Study of Rocket Propulsion was established in the Soviet Union, in April. 1925 The Attainability of Celestial Bodies, by Walter Hohmann, described the principles involved in interplanetary flight. 1926 March 16:  Robert Goddard  tested the worlds first successful  liquid-fueled rocket, in Auburn, Massachusetts. It attained a height of 41 feet in 2.5 seconds, and it came to rest 184 feet from the launch pad. 1927 Enthusiasts in Germany formed the Society for Space Travel. Hermann Oberth was among the first several members to join. Die Rakete, a rocket publication, began in Germany. 1928 The first of nine volumes of an encyclopedia on interplanetary travel was published by Russian Professor Nikolai Rynin. In April, the first manned, rocket-powered, automobile was tested by Fritz von Opel, Max Valier and others, in Berlin, Germany. In June, the first manned flight in a rocket-powered glider was achieved. Friedrich Stamer was the pilot, and flew about one mile. Launch was achieved by an elastic launch rope and a 44 pound thrust rocket, then a second rocket fired while airborne. Hermann Oberth began acting as consultant to Film Director Fritz Langs Girl in the Moon and built a rocket for premiere publicity. The rocket exploded on the launch pad. 1929 Hermann Oberth published his second book about space travel, and one chapter included the idea of an electric space ship. On July 17, Robert Goddard launched a small 11 ft. rocket which carried a small camera, barometer and thermometer which were recovered after the flight. In August, many small  solid-propellant  rockets were attached to Junkers-33 seaplane, and were used to achieve the first recorded jet-assisted airplane take-off. 1930 In April, The American Rocket Society was founded in New York City by David Lasser, G. Edward Pendray, and ten others for the purpose of promoting interest in space travel. December 17th marked the establishment of a rocket program Kummersdorf. It was also decided that the Kummersdorf proving grounds would be equipped to develop military missiles. On December 30th,  Robert Goddard  fired an 11 foot  liquid fueled rocket, to a height of 2000 feet at a speed of 500 miles per hour. The launch took place near Roswell New Mexico. 1931 In Austria, Friedrich Schmiedl fired the worlds first mail carrying  rocket. David Lassers book, The Conquest of Space, was published in the United States. May 14: VfR successfully launched a  liquid-fueled rocket  to a height of 60 meters. 1932 Von Braun  and his colleagues demonstrated a  liquid fueled  rocket to the German Army. It crashed before the parachute opened, but  Von Braun  was soon employed to develop liquid fueled rockets for the Army. On April 19th, the first  Goddard  rocket with gyroscopically controlled vanes was fired. The vanes gave it automatically stabilized flight. In November, at Stockton N.J., the American Interplanetary Society tested a rocket design that they had adapted from the German Society for Space Travels designs. 1933 The Soviets launched a new rocket fueled by  solid  and  liquid  fuels, which reached a height of 400 meters. The launch took place near Moscow. At Stanten Island, New York, the American Interplanetary Society launched its No. 2 rocket, and watched it attain 250 feet in altitude in 2 seconds. 1934 In December,  Von Braun  and his associates launched 2 A-2 rockets, both to heights of 1.5 miles. 1935 The Russians fired a  liquid, powered rocket that achieved a height of over eight miles. In March, a rocket of Robert Goddards exceeded the speed of sound. In May,  Goddard  launched one of his gyro-controlled rockets to a height of 7500 feet, in New Mexico. 1936 Scientists from the California Institute of Technology began rocket testing near Pasadena, CA. This marked the beginning of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The Smithsonian Institution printed  Robert Goddards  famous report,   Liquid  Propellant Rocket Development, in March. 1937 Von Braun  and his team relocated to a special, purpose-built rocket testing facility at Peenemunde on the Baltic Coast of Germany. Russia established rocket test centers in Leningrad, Moscow and Kazan. Goddard watched one of his rockets fly to higher than 9,000 feet, on March 27. This was the highest altitude attained by any of the  Goddard Rockets. 1938 Goddard  began to develop high speed fuel pumps, in order to better outfit  liquid fueled  rockets. 1939 German scientists fired, and recovered, A-5 rockets with gyroscopic controls that attained seven miles altitude and eleven miles range. 1940 The Royal Air Force used rockets against the Luftwaffe planes in the Battle of Britain. 1941 In July, the first U.S. based launch of a rocket assisted airplane took place. Lt. Homer A. Boushey piloted the craft. The U.S. Navy began developing Mousetrap, which was a ship-based 7.2 inch mortar-fired bomb. 1942 The U.S. Air Force launched its first air-to-air and air-to-surface rockets. After a failed attempt in June, Germans managed to successfully launch an  A-4  (V2) rocket, in October. It traveled 120 miles downrange from the launch pad. 1944 January 1st marked the beginning of long-range rocket development, by the California Institute of Technology. This testing resulted in the Private-A and Corporal rockets. In September, the first fully operational  V2 rocket  was launched against London, from Germany. Over a thousand V2s followed. Between the 1st and 16th of December, twenty four Private-A rockets were test fired at Camp Irwin, CA. 1945 Germany successfully launched the A-9, a winged prototype of the first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, which was designed to reach North America. It reached almost 50 miles in altitude, and achieved a speed of 2,700 mph. The launch was executed on January 24th. In February, the Secretary of War approved the Armys plans to establish the White Sands Proving Grounds, for testing new rockets. On April 1st through 13th, seventeen rounds of Private-F rockets were fired at Hueco Ranch, Texas. On May 5th, Peenemunde was captured by the Red army, but the facilities there were mostly destroyed by the personnel. Von Braun  was captured by the U.S. and relocated to the White Sands proving ground in New Mexico. He was made part of Operation Paperclip. May 8th marked the end of the war in Europe. At the time of the German collapse, more than 20,000 V-1s and V-2s had been fired. Components of approximately 100 V-2 rockets arrived at the White Sands Testing Grounds, in August. On August 10,  Robert Goddard  died due to cancer. He died at the University of Maryland Hospital in Baltimore. In October, the U.S. Army established its first Guided Missile Battalion, with the Army Guard Forces. The Secretary Of War approved plans to bring top German rocket engineers to the U.S., in order to further knowledge and technology. Fifty five German scientists arrived at Fort Bliss and White Sands Proving Grounds, in December. 1946 In January, the U.S. outer space research program was started with captured  V-2 rockets. A V-2 panel of representatives of interested agencies was formed, and more than 60 rockets were fired before the supply was finally exhausted. On March 15, the first American built V-2 rocket was static-fired at the White Sands Proving Grounds. The first American-built rocket to leave the earths atmosphere (the WAC) was launched on March 22nd. It was launched from White Sands, and attained 50 miles of altitude. The U.S. Army began a program to develop two stage rockets. This resulted in the WAC Corporal as the 2nd stage of a  V-2. On October 24th, a V-2 with a motion picture camera was launched. It recorded images from 65 miles above the earth, covering 40,000 square miles. On December 17th, the first night-flight of a V-2 occurred. It achieved a record making 116 miles of altitude, and velocity of 3600 mph. German rocket engineers arrived in Russia to begin work with Soviet rocket research groups. Sergei Korolev built rockets using technology from the  V-2. 1947 The Russians began launch tests of their  V-2 rockets, at Kapustin Yar. Telemetry was successfully used for the first time in a V-2, launched from White Sands. On February 20th, the first of a series of rockets was launched for the purpose of testing ejection canister effectivity. On May 29, a modified V-2 landed 1.5 miles south of Juarez, Mexico, narrowly missing a large ammunition dump. The first V-2 to be launched from a ship was launched from the deck of the U.S.S. Midway, on September 6th. 1948 On May 13th, the first two-stage rocket launched in the Western Hemisphere was launched from the White Sands facility. It was a  V-2  which had been converted to include a WAC-Corporal upper stage. It reached a total altitude of 79 miles. White Sands launched the first in a series of rockets that contained live animals, on June 11. The launches were named Albert, after the monkey that rode in the first rocket. Albert died of suffocation in the rocket. Several monkeys and mice were killed in the experiments. On June 26, two rockets, a  V-2  and an Aerobee were launched from White Sands. The V-2 attained 60.3 miles, while the Aerobee attained 70 miles altitude. 1949 A number 5 two-stage rocket was launched to 244 miles of altitude, and 5,510 mph velocity over White Sands. It set a new record for the time-being, on February 24. On May 11,  President Truman  signed a bill for a 5,000 mile test range to extend from Cape Kennedy Florida. The Secretary of the Army approved the relocation of the White Sands scientists and their equipment to Huntsville, Alabama. 1950 On July 24th, the first rocket launch from Cape Kennedy was a number 8 of the two-stage rockets. It climbed to a total of 25 miles in altitude. A number 7 two-stage rocket was launched from Cape Kennedy. It set the record for the fastest moving man-made object, by traveling Mach 9. 1951 The Jet Propulsion Laboratory of California launched the first of a series of 3,544 Loki rockets, on June 22. The program ended 4 years later, after having fired the most rounds in ten years at White Sands. On August 7, a Navy Viking 7 rocket set the new altitude record for single stage rockets by reaching 136 miles and a speed of 4,100 mph. The launch of the 26th V-2, on October 29, concluded the use of the German rockets in upper atmosphere testing. 1952 On July 22, the first production-line Nike rocket made a successful flight. 1953 A missile was fired from an underground launch facility in White Sands on June 5. The facility was constructed by the Army Corps of Engineers. The first launch of the Armys Redstone missile, on August 20th, was conducted at Cape Kennedy by Redstone Arsenal Personnel. 1954 On August 17th, the first firing of a Lacrosse Group A  missile  was conducted at the White Sands facility. 1955 The White House announced, on July 29th, that President Eisenhower approved plans to launch unmanned satellites to circle the earth, as participation in the  International Geophysical Year. The Russians soon made similar announcements. On November 1st, the first guided missile equipped cruiser was placed in commission at the Philadelphia Naval Yard. On November 8th, the Secretary of Defense approved the  Jupiter  and Thor Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) programs. President Eisenhower placed highest priority on Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) and the Thor and Jupiter IRBM programs on December 1st.

At least four general characteristics of materials handling contribute Essay

At least four general characteristics of materials handling contribute to its intrinsic hazard potential. Name and explain four such characteristics - Essay Example In general lack of operational control may increase the scope of intrinsic hazards as it may cause either cause damage either to the operator, the fellow workers or the environment in varied combinations and extremities. Non-Identification of Hazardous Materials: The proper identification and description of the extent of the risk posed by a hazardous material must be well aware to the person handling it. Any lacuna in this would proportionally increase the intrinsic hazard potential of the material. Handling procedures including details on the hazard levels and risks posed must be studied in detail before handling the material Continued exposure of Hazardous materials: If hazardous materials with are not isolated and demarcated, it may lead to uncontrolled exposure of the same to the people handling it which would contribute to the increase of its potential risk. Thus such materials must be isolated and made to be handled by trained persons Personal Safety Equipments: The proper use of Personal Safety Equipments like gloves, goggles, safety shoes, work coat, sunscreen is very important to avert the risk posed by hazardous materials. Improper use of these or not using these while handling a hazardous material increases the intrinsic hazard potential of the

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Graduates vs undergraduates - Essay Example Today, more than ever before nursing professionals are faced with challenges like catering to a global population, from diverse backgrounds and dealing with a whole host of problems that such situations throw up. Besides, with the advance of technology and an increased life span, the adult population with chronic illness makes up a significant percentage of today’s patients. In addition to healing the sick, nursing professionals today have to shoulder the added burden of the changing needs of their profession in order to deliver good and cost effective care to their patients. Holistic care that is based on the physical, mental and emotional well being of the patient is the goal of every nursing professional, whether graduate or undergraduate. A health care system, needs a human interface in order to translate a health care plan and maximize its benefits to the patient. This is one of the important roles carried out by the nursing profession. Besides delivering good and cost ef fective health care, the nursing professional must also be capable of focusing on prevention rather than on cure. Understanding advances in technology and using this knowledge to educate communities on ways to lead healthier lives is an important aspect of the entire nursing profession.

Old Habits Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Old Habits - Essay Example My own family members have become the greatest examples of these phenomena in my life. To comprehend this procedure or perceive the power of the cosmic force which is beyond our comprehension, the trajectory of my life consisted of the actions which fell into close counter, begins with the story of my brother Matt. Matt is my sibling and he is a great lover of adventure. This love of his life suddenly changed his entire life. However, it was not his destiny alone that was shaped with the deeds for which he was responsible. There were people around him like my mom, Deb and my dad, Steve and me whose lives were greatly affected by the transition in Matt’s life. As a family the lives of each member is closely related and influenced by the actions and lifestyle of other members in the family. Actually, this feeling itself gives a feeling of coherence. A family is like a complete picture where each member and their life is a fragment of the jigsaw puzzle. A single fragment missing would never allow completing the puzzle and the story. Matt and my life are not an exception in this regard and the fate of our parents proved fatal for us to a great extent. There was a time when my mom and dad were almost on the verge of losing their job. Threat of financial crisis is greatest in today’s materialist world. ... I mentioned the fact earlier that every integrated bit, every single member complements and completes the picture of a happy family. One day we all went together for hunting and very unfortunately at the dusk, we lost one of our dogs and never saw him again. This is why I repeatedly keep stressing on this factor. I am well aware with the consequence of a missing member in the prevalent picture perfect concept. The three different stories evolve out from the same platform called family. The three different incidents might seem fragmented incidents of life. They may seem bizarre. But all these events are united at a plane which greatly effect, move and influence the lives of all the members of the family. I want to give a very clear and in-depth introspection to this very simple and mundane factor which often escape the attention of the human mind. But the fact that neither it is mundane nor is it unimportant attracts a close attention. And this fact at times can bring forth an entire different set of actions which can alter the fate of a family or a generation altogether. Matt was a victim of this socio-economic change. His actions were not guided solely by his own will. At times, I sincerely feel that external conditions were responsible to a great extent for the predicament which he had to meet. I watched Matt through the glass door made for the visitors to watch the critical patients at the I.C.U. Matt was lying on the hospital bed. His blue-colored uniform reminded me the fact time and again that he loved blue. He wanted to wear something blue at the prom-night in his high-school graduation party. He was fortunate to get that touch of blue; but alas it was the I.C.U uniform. Matt was looking handsome. I could see only his face but that vision was

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Film Analysis - Essay Example aging a Living†, especially in its story about Barbara Brooks who is a 36 year-old single, black mother living in Freeport, New York, reflects the matrix of domination in relation to how Barbara experiences herself in relation to social class, race, and gender, as well as how these intersect to form a boundary between subordination and privilege. In short, Barbara’s story in â€Å"Waging a Living† seen from the matrix of domination perspective, represents the fact that understanding oppression requires initial understanding of privilege as a counter position. Society typically uses descriptive dichotomies like white/black or female/male, which are in direct opposition to one another and are rarely representative of equal relationships (Zinn & Dill, 1996). This phenomenon can be used to describe the reason why Barbara Brooks finds herself in her position of domination. In this case, she falls into two halves that society considers inferior, which are being black and being female. This intersection of gender and race has been identified as having a significant influence over the labor market. For instance, despite Barbara having the requisite skill, experience, and education to succeed, these factors are not enough to make a difference in the outcome of the labor market. She still has to balance her responsibilities as a full time worker and a single mother, of which the latter is a consequence of her gender. The intersection of gender and race also has a significant impact on wages, especially since she is forced to return to her school a nd work schedule as she is unable to support her family. By understanding intersectionality and the labor market, it is further easier to see how the intersection of gender and race, as well as economic inequalities, impact on social status and class (Zinn & Dill, 1996). In Barbara’s case, her gender and race also intersect with her social status to make her even more dominated. Barbara lives in Freeport, New York where the

IT163 Unit 5 BD Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

IT163 Unit 5 BD - Research Paper Example The join condition brings the relationship between the rows of one table and the rows of another table. The join query enables a query to select any number of columns from more than two tables (Connolly, & Begg, 2005). If two of these tables have a column which share the same name, then all the qualifying name attributes of the columns will be used so that the queries will have the name of the table that is used. Join query come in many flavors according to the location where the join query will be located. There are conditions that join query will work. A join query will either work under WHERE clause or FROM clause. These are the conditions that will enable join queries to work. This is in aimportant aspect which should be looked into when undertaking and creating join queries. In an example where there are two tables holding persons information and the order information, if one wants to get some data from the two tables (Connolly, & Begg,

Employee Motivation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Employee Motivation - Essay Example However, in the event of a major organisational or operational change in an organisation, the administration or management should inform the staffs in advance which gives makes the employees feel more indulged and appreciated part of the organisation. Different organisations have different ways of motivating their labour force. Most frequently, rewards are given depending on the factors of operation and results. Many employees think of motivation as monetary reward. According to Jan-christoph & Koen (2005), monetary motivation does not provide the required concentration among the human resources. Taking all matters into consideration, employee motivation should be a strategy used by companies to increase the levels of production and operations. Any form of a major change in an organisation should be a cause to worry. This is because the reaction of the employees is unpredictable (Schermerhorn, James & Richard, 2004). A good number of employees do not feel comfortable when embracing change especially when it is an operational change. They perceive it to be a new internship procedure in a familiar environment. However, change in an organisation is an important factor to consider. The change is not the crucial factor of concern, but how employee will embrace the change in the organisation. In modern day business environment change is important as much as human resource is. As much implementing change is vital in an organisation the tools of operation in these case employees need to be considered (Bruno & Margit, 2002). With a proper approach it is easy to effect change in organisations. Effective discussions with the head of HR can lead to the best solution when employees are concerned. Additionally, training should be provide d to familiarise the staffs on the new operation methods. If the employees will be required to do more complicate duties and their operation level increase, the organisation must consider a proper and efficient reward system. In words of Sharlyn (2005) with an efficient training and reward system implementing change in companies should not be a difficult step as far as human resource is concerned. It is an obvious assumption that productivity levels go hand in hand with employee motivation levels. The organisation’s productivity level can be maximised if motivation levels among employees are also maximised (Aidan, 2008). Future operations structure should consider employees need. These needs include social needs, financial needs, psychological needs, safety needs, esteem needs and self actualisation. The satisfaction of these needs will lead to definite employee motivation. If the organisation is dedicated to fulfil these needs the employees will feel obligated to dedicate to flourish the productivity of the organisation. Self actualisation means the ability of an employee to reach his full potential by working and increase his abilities (Cable & Parsons, 2001). The operation structure should be in way it puts the employee full potential in activities. Additionally, the operations should not undermine the capabilities of the employee. An employee working in full potential is likely to be dedicated to his work more than employee who does not exploit his full potential. Safety need require assurance of good health and treatment in case of accident during operations (Geoff & Jan, 2000). Fulfilment

Marketing Segmentation Targeting And Positioning Marketing Essay

Marketing Segmentation Targeting And Positioning Marketing Essay Introduction In marketing segmentation, targeting and positioning of the product is necessary, it is also known as STP process. Segmentation helps the manager to identify which area they have to focus on according to geography, demographics, social or other factors. After segmentation targeting is done which requires the needs of target customers to be fulfilled. After segmentation and targeting the positioning comes which refers to the way the consumer have the image of the product. Segmentation, targeting and positioning go hand in hand for an organisation to achieve the desirables. Market segmentation is a process of grouping people together with similar needs or smaller segments who show similar buying pattern. Segmentation is done either for differentiating a product or to target a specific group of people to earn profit. It is a form of critical evaluation rather than a prescribed system or process. According to Kotler 2010 the requirements of effective segmentation must be: Measurable It depends upon the buying capacity of the consumer. Accessible For effective segmentation the product should be easily accessible and the needs of the consumer are fulfilled. Substantial There should be enough number of people to buy the product. Differentiable This market segment has made different segments and they act accordingly according to the market need. Actionable This depends on how the product attracts and serves the segments. When the focus is on segmented markets a company is allowed to use its resources more effectively and efficiently thereby increasing the chances of its success in the market. According to Kotler 2010 for the effective segmentation of Apple iPhone the buying capacity of the consumer is a little low due to laws of economics. An Apple iphone costs around  £299 which is a lot of money and people think a lot before buying it. The Apple iPhone is widely accessible to USA, UK and many European countries but Apple does not launch its iPhone in countries where they feel people wont be able to pay the price. According to (West Mace, 2007) Apple differentiates itself from its competitors through innovation. The iPhone offers unique features which cannot be imitated and offers the latest feature which attracts customers to buy the product. Blackberry on the other hand like iPhone has a low buying power due to the fact that it is regarded as a business phone but it has its own market in which it excels. Blackberry sells everywhere and in the business world there are enough people to buy the product. Blackberry is regarded as a business phone which differentiates it; apart from being a business phone Blackberry also differentiates itself by its unique Blackberry messenger service in which a person can send and receive instant text messages anywhere and in any part of the world without being charged. The Blackberry messenger service differentiates this phone from its competitors. Blackberry has attracted a lot of business personnel as the phone serves the purpose of being connected with the business anytime. Nokia is different from both Blackberry and the Apple iPhone it has high buying power because it has a phone for everyone may be rich or poor. Nokia has entered the markets of both Blackberry and Apple iPhone and is doing quite well. The Blackberry is competing with Nokia E series which is the business edition of Nokia and for the Apple iPhone it is the N series. Apart from these series there are other series as well which focuses on the different segments of the society. Nokia has its products in every segment and which is at a lower price than its competitors which help Nokia to differentiate itself. Nokia sells its products in every part of the world unlike the iPhone and Blackberry and at a lower price. This low price is achieved because of economies of scale, since it serves a large number of the population. Due to Nokia phones being cheap, reliable and long lasting than its competitors it attracts a lot of customer. Nokia offers similar features as offered by its counterparts . Nokia products are not always cheap it has a product range called the Vertu which offers the worlds most exclusives phones. According to (Dibb et. al. 2006) the advantages of segmentation of a market can be done by:- Understanding the customer This requires a careful study and research to understand the customer needs and wants. Therefore an organisation can focus on the key factors and put more emphasis on understanding the customer thereby improving brand loyalty. Understand the competitor This requires a study of the market to know who the main competition for an organisation is and which segment is been targeted. So that the organisation pays more emphasis on the product. Effective resource allocation After understanding the customer and the competitors an organisation is in a better position to utilize the company resources effectively. Strategic Marketing Planning Dividing the market into segments helps the marketers to develop special plans to gain the attention of the competitors. Market segmentation According to Dibb et. al. 2006 market can be segmented according to Demographic Variables Age Occupation Gender Family Size Race Family life cycle Ethnicity Religion Income Social Class Education Geographic Variables Population City Size Region Market Density Urban, Suburban, Climate rural Psychographic Variables Personality attributes Motives Lifestyles Behaviouristic Variables Volume usage End use Benefit expectations Brand loyalty Price sensitivity (Adapted from Dibb et. al. 2006 pp 228) Demographic Variables It is the characteristics of the population such as age, gender, race which help in knowing the needs and buying behaviour and can be recorded. These types of variables can be measured easily. It helps an organization to know what type of population they are going to target. According to Kotler 2010 by segmenting according to the age helps the companies to develop the product according to the needs and wants of that age group. Segmentation according to gender or income divides the market accordingly and it helps to understand what type of products a company has to deliver in order to achieve Geographic Variables The need of customers changes according to the population, region, and climate. The geographic variables play a very important role in the market segmentation because the needs of customer may be different for different customers. An organization can decide in which countries they would like to operate in or what kind of population they are going to target. Psychographic Variables The personality characteristics, motives and lifestyles are sometime used to segment the market. It can be used alone or mixed with any other type of market segment. It is useful when the competition is intense. The marketers may also segment according to the social classes of different people; this helps an organization to know who their customers is and what kind of products they would like to have. Behaviouristic Variables The market can also be segmented according to the consumer behaviour towards the product. It may depend upon brand loyalty or on the price of the product. According to Kotler 2010 a market can be segmented according to loyalty also. If the product has made an impact on the customer then the company has achieved what was required. Market segmentation of Apple iPhone The Apple iPhone is targeted for the people lying in the age group of 18 to 40 year olds because they are the ones who are interested in buying the technology. Mainly males rather than females are targeted for the iPhone because of the applications, games and features such as wireless internet which are generally used more by the male population as compared to the latter. The customers buying the Apple iPhone are usually students who belong to higher class as well as higher middle class as the phone is quite expensive they even involve early adopters and the early majority. The iPhone is launched and sold first mainly across USA, UK and some parts of Europe because they have the infrastructure ready for it and also because the competition in these countries is quiet intense. Apple iPhone has a strong brand image in the mind of the customer as Apple says its not a phone its an experience. The after sales service provided by Apple is very good which helps in creating brand loyalty amon g the customer. The price positioning strategy of the Apple iPhone 4 is premium strategy which means that the iPhone 4 is of very high quality and to get that quality the consumers have to pay a higher price. Market segmentation of Blackberry The blackberry is regarded as a business phone it is not targeted towards a particular age group but it is targeted towards the business segment consisting of business professionals. There is no social class for the blackberry because it targets the whole business segment. The phone offers business features like access to e mail wireless internet and many other but the most remarkable feature it has is the blackberry messenger by which a person can send and receive text anywhere, anytime in the world free of charge. This is the most unique feature of the blackberry phone it gets connected to any blackberry phone in the world through a pin number which is different for every blackberry phone. Once the connection is set a business personnel can send and receive texts which is very helpful a person can receive important messages delivered to him on the go. Market segmentation of Nokia Nokia on the other hand has gained entry into all the segments it has something for everyone. Nokia has customers of all age group demographically it targets younger age groups who want the latest features at an affordable price. There is no social class involved for Nokia as it has a phone for every social class. The people buying Nokia phones can be student, business professionals.Nokia through high production has been able to reduce the cost of it phones which helps it to capture a large market. Nokia has a product for every customer in every bracket. The E- Series of Nokia is designed for the business class, the N series is for the teenagers and has normal phones for other people as well. Nokia has developed a phone for the highly social class known as the Vertu which is an exclusive for the higher class. Nokia has diversified with the range of products it has in the market. Nokia has different models and they fall in different price brackets according to the features they provi de. Nokia has made its brand image as a reliable and value for money kind of phones. CONCLUSION According to the segmentation techniques utilised by Apple iPhone, Blackberry and Nokia it is evident that Apple iPhone segments itself from Blackberry and Nokia by innovation, Blackberry segments itself from others with its Blackberry messenger service and Nokia segments itself from others through reliable and value for money phones. POSITIONING OF iPhone 4 According to Kotler 2010 positioning can be defined as the perspective of a consumer mind on what he thinks about the brand. According to Dibb et. al. 2007 it is the image that a consumer perceives about the product. The position of Apple iPhone 4 in peoples mind is quite high it is a premium product having very high involvement of research and development and is targeted towards people who are rich, having a good lifestyle. It is a premium product having a high price and having exclusive features which other mobile phone manufacturers dont have. There is a price for this exclusivity because the way Apple has made an image of the iPhone 4 is remarkable the punch line for iPhone 4 is This changes everything.Again. which means that the iPhone 4 has changed the way we used to look at mobile phones it is something different than traditional or it can be defined as an innovation or it is an experience rather than a phone. Due to the exclusivity and the features involved Apple can set a pr emium price for the iPhone 4 as the features and the experience of iPhone 4 cannot be imitated by any other mobile manufacturer. PRODUCT OFFERING The iPhone 4 provides a wide range of stunning features the iOS 4 is the heart of the phone, it is the worlds most powerful mobile operating software which distinguishes it from other mobile phones. The technology and the features used in the operating system will keep the iPhone 4 at least 4 years ahead of its competitors. The operating system also helps the phone to do a lot of things at once without even slowing down the performance of the phone. The 3.5 inch widescreen multi touch display of the iPhone 4 has a resolution of 960 X 640 pixels which is very high and it helps in giving a sharp pictures. The 5 megapixel camera along with LED flashlight helps in taking pictures in low light. The iPhone 4 is the world thinnest smartphone ever built and the glass used on the screen is made up of aluminium silicate which helps it to be durable and scratch resistant and is recyclable too. Apart from the hardware Apple has a collection of over 3,00,000 applications in the App Store which he lps in improving the performance of the iPhone as well as it updates the phone automatically. It has a built in flash drive of 32 GB or 16 GB and the built in battery provides a longer backup for calls and internet. POSITIONING MAPS According to Kotler 2010 the position maps are used by marketers to know the perception of the brand in consumer minds. The positioning of iPhone 4 lies in the luxury segment with high performance along with a high price than its competitors. BRAND EQUITY According to Dibb et. al. 2007 brand equity can be defined as the value of brand which goes above the functional benefits of the product. (Adapted from Dibb et. al. 2007, pp 319) Brand equity plays an important role in the positioning of the product in the market it is the value of the brand which the consumer keeps in mind. Brand Name Awarness The brand name awareness helps the consumer to get familiar with the brand which helps in the selection of the brand. In the case of iPhone 4 the brand is known to everyone and the consumers are switching to iPhone 4 because it is reliable and is of high quality as compared with other brands. Brand Loyalty Brand loyalty is an important aspect of the brand equity because it reduces the competition with other mobile phone brands. It helps in retaining the existing customers and provides a potential for new customers to be loyal. Apple with the launch of iPhone 4 has been loyal to its customers by delivering the most innovative features and exclusivity that earlier version of iPhone had. this helped Apple in retaining their customers and inviting new customers. Perceived Brand Quality Customers see quality with the brand. Apple is a brand and has high level of quality so the consumer has in mind that whatever product Apple will make will be of high quality and standards that is why Apple is able to sell the iPhone 4 at a premium price allowing it to reduce competition. Brand Association Apple has created a lifestyle for itself; the statement associated with iPhone 4 is This changes everything. Again. This means that Apple has introduced the iPhone 4 as a unique product which has the best features and value amongst its competitors. BRAND ELEMENTS Brand elements can be defined as the different criterias by which a product is defined. Brands elements should be Memorable Apple iPhone 4 has a strong brand image and is easily recognized by the consumer. Apple has been ranked among the top 10 brands of 2010 in the world it holds third position therefore there is a very strong image of the company in the minds of the consumers and the consumers is able to identify the brand. Meaningful After the launch of the Apple iPhone 4 the consumers have started switching their phones to the iPhone 4. This shows that the product that is iPhone 4 has been up to the mark in terms of creating the brand image. Likability The Apple iPhone 4 with its unique features and its futuristic looks has become a favourite for many consumers. Transferability Apple iPhone 4 has been successful in maintaining as well as improving the brand image that previous version of iPhone had, so the transfer between the iPhone 3GS and iPhone 4 has been handled quite well by the company. Adaptability The iPhone 4 with its applications has adapted itself in the market and the engineering involved in every part of the phone helps it to be adaptable. Protectability The iPhone 4 is an exclusive phone aimed at the higher social class, it protects itself from its competitors by innovations. The Apple iPhone 4 is not easily accessible to everyone as the price is quiet high which helps in giving exclusivity to the customers therefore apple is able to protect its brand image. CONCLUSION Brand equity plays a vital role in the positioning of the product and the brand elements support the brand to which the product is associated to. Apple sells the iPhone 4 at a premium price because it is the value that is associated with the product has been created using brand equity. Apple has shown a high involvement of research and development for the iPhone 4 and the features it offers are remarkable. References Kotler, P Armstrong, G (2010) Principles of Marketing 13th edition, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall Dibb, S., et.al. (2006), Marketing : Concepts and Strategies, Boston, MA ; Abingdon : Houghton Mifflin West, J., Mace, M. (2007). Entering a mature industry through innovation:Apples iPhone strategy. Druid summer cofrence.